Constellations Across Cultures: The Tapestry of the Night Sky
Creative expression has existed on planet Earth since the origin of humanity. Constantly immersed within the wild, unlike the majority of our contemporary societies, primitive humans drew inspiration from their surroundings and the inherent attributes of their lifestyles: local flora and fauna, the environment, weather patterns, and of course, the night sky. Our own Milky Way Galaxy served as a prominent fixture in the lives of various ancient cultures. In East Asian, Greek, and Roman mythology, the Milky Way represented a heavenly river of godly liquid, while Inuit stories described it as flowing with snow rather than water. The ancient Egyptians claimed it was composed of wheat, while the Navajo imagined it as a manifestation of coyote mischief in creation myths (Astronomy Magazine). Stars and constellations were often the focal point of artistic invention, and inspired unique stories, narratives, lessons, warnings, and reminders to humanity.
A constellation is a group of stars forming a recognizable, often coherent shape from our perspective on Earth. Historically, constellations have been named after figures that they resemble, such as mythical beasts, revered gods, or valued objects. In ancient times, most civilizations conjectured that the stars were deliberately positioned by higher powers. They believed that these figures were immortalized in the night sky to serve as lessons to humanity about morals, respect towards superior beings, and the distinction between good and evil. Early astronomers conjectured that the orientation of stars was of spiritual and religious purpose, and that by recognizing a relationship between them, one could enhance their comprehension of the universe on both a physical and mystical level.
Constellations are sacred tapestries constructed by the cosmos and appropriated by humankind to possess personal, spiritual, mathematical, and economical value. Yet although they are essentially entirely fabricated by human imagination, they still adhere to the physical properties of the universe. Constellations are delineated from numerous individual stars, each with distinctive placements in the fabric of spacetime and particular relationships with neighboring celestial bodies in the Milky Way Galaxy. As stars travel through time and space, reacting to and corresponding with intergalactic objects, their changes in physicality are not always visible from Earth. They may shift in size or luminosity, or even explode or implode, but the extreme distance between our planet and extrasolar stars often prevents observers from witnessing significant differences—specifically when using the most basic and accessible form of astronomical technology: the naked eye. Additionally, if a star were to undergo even a major adjustment, observers on Earth wouldn’t detect it until the light traveled hundreds of thousands of light years to reach our solar system.
Still, the constellations are not stagnant forms and were never perceived so by early civilizations on Earth—largely because of the planet itself. As you may already be aware of, our planet is tilted on its axis approximately 23.5 degrees. This means that the poles of the Earth are not aligned with the elliptic plane of the Sun. As a result, our seasons are exaggerated and certain regions sustain higher levels of solar radiation. Furthermore, the two hemispheres possess distinct perspectives of the galaxy, and are therefore exposed to contrasting celestial views. Observers in the Southern hemisphere have inherent access to stars, planets, and constellations unavailable to observers in the Northern hemisphere. Additionally, as Earth travels through space and time along its orbital path around the Sun, a specific category of constellations are revealed: seasonal constellations. The visibility of a constellation is largely determined by its location in the Earth’s sky. Constellations closer to Earth’s horizon are often only visible in certain regions and times of year. Such objects are referred to as “seasonal constellations”. Constellations adjacent to Earth’s poles are known as “circumpolar constellations”, and are detectable all year long. This is simply a consequence of our planet’s atypical axial tilt.
As ancient civilizations recognized, defined, and characterized constellations, they used both circumpolar and seasonal patterns to their advantage. They realized that the gradual shifting of constellations over time was aligned with the sequence of seasons on Earth. This discovery supported long-term timekeeping systems and eventually contributed to the creation of the year. Humans recognized the seasonal emergence of particular constellations and stars as reminders of environmental change. For example, the appearance of Cygnus the Swan, in the late summer sky of the Northern hemisphere, was a crucial indicator for the coming of autumn and the harvest season. Farmers would acknowledge the arrival of Cygnus as permission to harvest summer crops and plant winter crops. The mathematical consistency of the stars has provided valuable context for our existence and has been utilized by humankind for eons, serving distinct purposes for each culture. “For the Inuit in the far north, this was the prediction of the return of the Sun; for the Egyptians, it was the flood of the Nile; for the Babylonians and others in the monsoon zone, it was the predominant direction of the wind; and for the Aboriginal Australians, it was the emu’s breeding cycle” (Gullberg, 2020). From primitive homo sapiens to ancient civilizations to the early 20th century, constellations have been practical tools of navigation, agriculture, architecture, and calendars. They have also served crucial roles in the creation of storytelling and mythology, and the practice of religious rituals and cultural traditions. Because constellations are products of imagination, they technically possess no scientific implication. Still, they remain in use because of their convenience in visual references, as well as their contribution to the anthropological study of early human cultures.
Although all human civilizations engaged in the practice of astronomy, differences in region influenced how constellations were perceived. What one ancient civilization may have interpreted to be a Greek hunter, another considered to be an Arab giant. Similarly, an open star cluster could be both regarded as the burning embers of the Karatgurk in Aboriginal mythology, or as seven girls victimized by vicious bears in a Lakota legend (Smith, 2019). Simply put, the purpose of a constellation does not belong to a single culture, nor is defined by a single narrative. Not only were constellations interpreted differently across cultures, but constructed as well. For example, ancient Chinese astronomers constructed relatively miniscule constellations, some containing only one to three stars. Often. These tiny constellations were configured into super-constellations that covered great portions of the sky, dividing the hemisphere roughly into quarters (Gullberg, 2020). This method of constellation-composition is extremely distinct from the ancient Greeks’ system, which was chiefly composed of massive, hemisphere-encompassing pictures, some spanning more than 100 light years.
Images in the night sky represent no single god or instrument or animal to every culture, but rather exist as a blank canvas on which humankind is free to express ideas. Each ancient civilization has participated in the act of constellation-creation—perceiving stars to symbolize something and then attributing their supposed significance upon it—and have accumulated their own unique assortment. Yet as the result of evolving trade routes, interrelated history, and acculturation, many neighboring civilizations share similar or identical customs, and by extension, constellations. For instance, the aboriginal peoples of Australia and the indigenous peoples of North America interpreted constellations through such vastly different narratives because of their distinct histories, experiences, customs, and locations on Earth. It would be unlikely for these two entirely unassociated groups to possess related mythology, whereas it is far more plausible that the civilizations within the respective continents would share paralleled mythology and constellations due to their adjacency.
If you were to review the astronomical records of any single civilization, you would discover an elaborate and advanced system of constellations. There are countless instances of ancient civilizations that have constructed sites that demonstrate advanced astronomical and mathematical comprehension. For example, both Stonehenge in England and the pyramids in Chichen Itza, Mexico possess accurate systems for determining celestial events (Royal Museums Greenwich). Yet you would soon come across a shift in constellation-creation that occurred when human society evolved into the medieval ages. During this period, it was not uncommon for constellations to be founded in arguably superficial origins with obsolete objectives; while most were inspired by mythology or religion, many were created in honor of or by monarchs, patrons, or citizens of higher society. As a result, the amount of constellations increased as time passed and astronomy grew in popularity. If you attempted to document the astronomical records of all ancient civilizations, you would likely encounter millions (or higher) of star groups.
If stars are words and the night sky is our vocabulary, constellations are comparable to sentences in a language. How many narratives could you construct from such an immense and abundant reservoir? This is one of the beauties of constellations. Because they are fabricated by imagination, anyone could technically “make” one—even you, reader. Step outside into the night, find any collection of stars, and visualize something with personal significance. Name it. Name the stars it is composed of. Now you have your own constellation! But this capability does not necessarily signify that your creation would be officially recognized or documented by the public—unless you could somehow prove its scientific importance. In terms of formality, only 88 constellations are recognized by the global astronomical community—the majority of which derive from ancient Greek and Middle Eastern astronomy.
These 88 constellations were aggregated in the late 20th century as astronomers sought to formulate a list of officially recognized, internationally agreed upon star groups. This effort was led by the International Astronomical Union (IAU). In 1922, at the IAU’s first General Assembly in Rome, 88 constellations were chosen to represent humankind. Each constellation was attributed a three-letter abbreviation corresponding to its Latin translation. These star groups remain in place to this day. They include Andromeda, Hercules, Pisces, Ursa Major, and Vulpecula, to name a few. Depending on star luminosity, light/air pollution, and location in the sky, these constellations can be viewed with the naked eye from most locations. Traditionally, astronomers and star-watchers from across the world use a planisphere as a guide to the night sky. A planisphere is an astronomical instrument in the form of two adjustable disks connected by a single pivot point. The disks display all the documented stars and constellations in both hemispheres. By rotating the disks, one can set the planisphere to a specific date and time, and therefore acquire an accurate map of the night sky. Unlike most star charts, planispheres can never become outdated. These days, most individuals use star watching applications on iPhones or computers. This advanced form of a star chart is easily accessible and spatially precise. Constellations can also be recognized by familiar stars, celestial objects, or asterisms. For example, the constellation Orion is one of the most easily recognizable images because of its popular three-star belt. The Big Dipper is an asterism useful in locating Ursa Major and even pointing out Ursa Minor and Polaris.
Works Cited
Gullberg, Jessica, et al. “The Constellations | IAU.” International Astronomical Union | IAU, https://www.iau.org/public/themes/constellations/. Accessed 25 February 2025.
“Milankovitch (Orbital) Cycles and Their Role in Earth’s Climate.” NASA Science, 27 February 2020, https://science.nasa.gov/science-research/earth-science/milankovitch-orbital-cycles-and-their-role-in-earths-climate/. Accessed 25 February 2025.
“More Than Meets the Eye: Delta Orionis in Orion’s Belt.” NASA, 12 November 2015, https://www.nasa.gov/universe/more-than-meets-the-eye-delta-orionis-in-orions-belt/. Accessed 26 February 2025.
“News & Resources.” News & Resources | Night Sky Network, 21 May 2023, https://nightsky.jpl.nasa.gov/news/186/. Accessed 25 February 2025.
Rapp, Joshua. “Interpreting 5 ancient constellations across cultures.” Astronomy Magazine, 17 August 2022, https://www.astronomy.com/astronomy-for-beginners/interpreting-5-ancient-constellations-across-cultures/. Accessed 25 February 2025.
Smith, Ashley, et al. “Star Gazing and the Seven Sisters.” Three Rivers Park District, 12 August 2019, https://www.threeriversparks.org/blog/star-gazing-and-seven-sisters. Accessed 25 February 2025.“What are constellations? | Royal Observatory.” Royal Museums Greenwich, https://www.rmg.co.uk/stories/topics/constellations. Accessed 25 February 2025.
