The Homo Sapien Predicament: Go Cosmic or Stand Aside
Skull, Tooth, and Jaw
Three hundred thousand years ago, Jebel Irhoud, Morocco was a lush, verdant environment. Gazelles, zebras, wildebeest, and lions roamed the West African savannah; rivers and lakes flowed throughout the country. Among the thriving flora and fauna of Africa’s Paleolithic Era, the first generations of Homo sapiens walked the earth. They lived in caves, hunted animals with stone-tipped spears, and foraged and gathered resources from the plentiful land. Today, Jebel Irhoud is barren and dry. All that remains of our early ancestors are fragments of skull, tooth, and jaw. Although these early human fossils were originally discovered by miners in the 1960s, they were not accurately dated until 2004. Jean-Jacques Hublin of the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology led the research and dating of the archeological site. His team removed approximately 200 cubic meters of limestone from the mine, cleared debris and earth to reveal an ancient stone cave. By gradually chipping away at the cave wall, Hublin’s team unearthed a plethora of human remains, flint tools, and animal bones that had been chiseled and fashioned into various apparatuses. Their findings pushed the first appearance of humans in Africa to 300,000 years ago—100,000 years earlier than originally hypothesized by the scientific community. Preceding Hubin’s discovery, the earliest Homo sapien fossils dated back 200,000 years ago in eastern sub-Saharan Africa. By integrating findings over time and space, Hublin proposes that Homo sapiens likely lived throughout the continent at this era; traveling, exploring, and evolving. “Our emergence is probably not in some garden of Eden, but pan-African,” he says in an interview with Sapiens magazine. The team published their discoveries in Nature on June 8, 2017.
Although Homo sapiens have inhabited Planet Earth for millenia, our existence is transient in comparison to other species, the Earth, and the Solar System. Even the ancient Milky Way Galaxy is infantile when juxtaposed with the universe, which has existed for almost 14 billion years. Yet, throughout our ephemeral history, we have fought countless socio-political battles, justified wars and exploitation in the name of higher powers, and initiated our own extinction through mass environmental destruction. Simultaneously, others have opposed these violations to humans and nature, fighting against the cycles of manipulation and greed that govern the world. From the Iron Age to the Digital Revolution, the balance between humans and nature has been systematically corrupted through colonization, human-induced extinction, overpopulation, factory farming, and the prioritization of convenience over sustainability. The toxic imprint of humanity has exposed a sociological pattern: reality is no more significant than ideality. In other words, it doesn’t always matter what is true, only what is believed.
Over the past several months, I’ve been contemplating this malleability of Truth. This characteristic is crucial to the function of culture, economy, politics, religion, and every other facet of the human experience, yet particularly vital to the pursuit of space exploration and technological advancement. Innovation and development are captivating prospects for humans’ intrinsic curiosity. As Carl Sagan states in his revolutionary Pale Blue Dot (1994), “Sending people into space captures the attention and Imagination of the world.” However, extraterrestrial endeavors, which are historically interlinked with politics, may only contribute to the exacerbating socio-political and environmental crises of today. Is it ethical to prioritize exploration over preservation? Can a balance be established between the pursuit of space exploration and the confrontation of Earth’s systemic dilemmas? Is it possible to nurture our planet while simultaneously probing the universe? Before addressing any modern-day discourse, we must look to the past.
Sputnik vs. Flopnik
The United States’ current technological capability has been greatly influenced by the socio-political factors of the 1900s. Throughout the mid-20th century, war and political tension served as a prominent motivator for technological innovation, competition, and advancement. World War II provided further impetus for the development of nuclear warfare, the creation of intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs), and atomic bombs. Shortly after the war, the United States and the Soviet Union entered a period of rivalry; partially due to disagreements concerning the governance of post-war Germany and partially due to the contrasting principles of Communism and Democracy. This decades-long Cold War was an ideological and indirect global feud. The United States and its allies represented capitalist Western Bloc and the free market, while the Soviet Union represented communist Eastern Bloc and advocated for state control of the economy and collective ownership. While no actual battles ensued, the two parties strived to surpass each other in technological capacity. The contest initially began as an arms race driving for superior warfare, then later escalated into a competition of space exploration. The world soon knew it as the Space Race.
While the rules and regulations of the Space Race were never formally established, the ultimate goals were evident: to launch the first satellites, make contact with the Moon, and send humanity into orbit. The United States and the Soviet Union each began by constructing satellites. During this preparatory stage in space technology, both nations publicized their attempts distinctly. The Soviet Union refrained from announcing launches in advance or disclosing any failed attempts. The United States reported civilian space activity publicly, yet kept military programs classified. The Space Race officially commenced when Soviet satellite Sputnik successfully launched and reached low-Earth orbit in October 1957. The United States scrambled to level with their opponents and launched the Vanguard TV-3 rocket in December 1957. However, their attempt to reach orbit failed when the first stage engine lost thrust at takeoff. The rocket crashed back on the landing pad, resulting in a major explosion that killed all three crew members inside. Newspapers throughout the United States ridiculed the unsuccessful launch, dubbing it “Flopnik” or “Kaputnik”.
As the Space Race began to intensify, the United States founded the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) in 1958. However, for the next decade, the Soviet Union continued to dominate the competition, breaking major milestones in space exploration and technology. In November 1957, they sent the first animal into outer space, a dog named Laika. In April 1961, they launched the Vostok 1 spacecraft and made cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin the first human in space. From 1963 to 1965, they sent the first woman and first multi-person spacecraft into orbit, and performed the first spacewalk in history. In 1966, they landed the first spacecraft on the Moon, Luna 9, and then sent the first spacecraft to fly around the Moon and land safely back on Earth in 1968. Though slow to start, the United States soon caught up with their competition and were able to match them in every category. They launched their first satellite, their first multi-person spacecraft, sent their first astronaut into orbit, and achieved their first spacewalk only a year after the Soviet Union, respectively. However, their most impressive accomplishment stunned the entire world, revolutionized space travel, culminated the generational Space Race and Cold War, and has not been achieved by any other country or space program to this day. On July 20, 1969, the United States landed humanity on the Moon.
Whitey on the Moon
NASA’s Project Apollo was a human spaceflight program that lasted from October 1961 to December 1972. They executed NASA’s most significant missions in history, with 6 successful lunar landings and 11 test flights and crewed missions. These groundbreaking projects include the Apollo 4 mission in 1967, which was an uncrewed test flight of the three-stage Saturn V rocket, and the Apollo 7 mission in 1968, which sent the first team of American astronauts for a 10-day flight in Earth’s orbit. However, evidently, the most prominent and well-known Apollo mission was Apollo 11, which landed the first humans, Neil Armstrong and Edwin “Buzz” Aldrin, on the Moon in July 1969. According to NASA, “the primary objective of Apollo 11 was to complete a national goal set by President John F. Kennedy on May 25, 1961: perform a crewed lunar landing and return to Earth”. When this objective was achieved, the United States became the victors of the Space Race and Cold War. Yet, public interest in space travel largely declined after Apollo 11. For the remainder of the century, the American government refocused funds toward the Vietnam War, social issues, and domestic programs. NASA experienced major budget deficits and their extraterrestrial endeavors declined.
The rapid decrease in government funding and public attention for space exploration demonstrated the performativity of NASA’s late-20th century space programs. While the Apollo missions contributed massively to the development of space travel, it is evident that they served more as an exhibition of political superiority than as a scientific feat to be celebrated by all. Furthermore, during this period of expeditious technological advancement, space exploration demanded exorbitant resources and funds. As a result, only nations with thriving economies could participate in the exploration of outer space—reserving this pursuit solely for the global superpowers of the late-20th century. This bolstered the reputations of the United States and the Soviet Union. Advancements made in space travel not only furthered their scientific accomplishments, but provided bragging points between the two nations.
This inextricable relationship between politics and space exploration became a breeding ground for conspiracy theories and objections to the truth of the Apollo Moon landings and other projects. Individuals across the globe claimed that the photographs from the Apollo 11 mission were inaccurate; the stars were not visible in the background, the blast crater under the landing module was nonexistent, and the shadows appeared warped. Oliver Morton, the author of The Moon: A History for the Future (2019), claims that the public’s skepticism towards the Moon landing is understandable; it was an unbelievable, implausible event that was never to have been replicated by any other nation. According to Morton, “The point of Apollo was to show how powerful the American government was in terms of actually doing things. The point of moon-hoax theory is to show how powerful the American government was in terms of making people believe things that weren’t true.” While many around the world questioned the actuality of the Apollo Moon landings, others believed and criticized it heavily. For instance, American poet and singer Gil Scott-Heron published his controversial poem “Whitey on the Moon” in 1970. The spoken word poem addresses the unethical redirection of government funds from social purposes to NASA, exacerbating the marginalization and neglect of Black Americans. It further scrutinizes the US government as a major contributor to poverty and protests the objective of the space program. “I can’t pay no doctor bills / But whitey’s on the moon / Ten years from now I’ll be payin’ still / While whitey’s on the moon,” sings Scott-Heron the year after Apollo 11 landed the first humans on the Moon.
Billionaires with Dreams
Space programs during the Cold War were extremely theatrical, and as Gil Scott-Heron exemplified, this was not overlooked by social advocates. The Apollo Moon landings were able to assert political dominance over the Soviet Union, regardless of if they were a hoax. As I previously mentioned, truth and reality were hardly of concern when it came to public display—all that mattered was the impression left on society. When the Cold War finally concluded, government space programs subsided. While technology continued to advance at an exponential rate, the figures spearheading these projects shifted from government agencies to commercial enterprises. Research and innovation no longer existed as a foundation for political rivalry, but rather as an effort to privatize research and commercialize outer space. Over the past quarter-century, more than ever, private space companies have established a presence in the history of space exploration. This drastic change from state-mitigated missions to private enterprises was largely influenced by the dissipation of the Cold War. Competition between the United States and the Soviet Union had been a major incentive for space exploration. Without the extreme pressure of the Cold War, demand for lunar missions diminished. In place of the lunar pursuits, funding for space stations, shuttles, and telescopes increased. President Nixon’s government policies cut back on NASA and refocused investments in the military and the Vietnam War, which was escalating in cost, public opposition, and political priority. Consequently, private organizations began to dominate space programs and projects. According to the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA), in 1986, President Reagan issued the “United States Space Launch Strategy”, which mitigated new rules for NASA’s role in providing commercial launches. “The resulting unavailability of NASA as a domestic civilian launch service, coupled with the already enacted legislation, led to the emergence of the U.S. commercial launch services industry (FAA).” This act encouraged privately funded spaceflight, pioneered by Space Services, Inc.’s first commercial rocket, Conestoga 1, which successfully launched and made a suborbital trip around Earth. Companies throughout the globe were also involved in the field of commercial spaceflight. Arianespace, a French company founded in 1980, was the world’s first commercial launch service provider. In the final decades of the 20th century, private spaceflight was rare, requiring enormous funds, time, and energy. However, with the 21st century came a new generation of space travel, spearheaded by billionaires with dreams of returning humanity to the stars.
Today, over 10,000 private space companies are active, including SpaceX, United Launch Alliance (ULA), Arianespace, Blue Origin, Axiom, and Virgin Galactic. Over half reside in the United States. In May 2020, SpaceX became the first private space company to successfully send humans into orbit. The mission was led by Elon Musk, the founder of SpaceX and a major figure in the movement of commercial spaceflight. SpaceX’s primary objective is to bring humanity to Mars, creating a multiplanetary species. Blue Origin’s founder, Jeff Bezos, aims to cultivate a society in outer space dedicated to the restoration and preservation of Earth. Richard Branson’s Virgin Galactic strives to develop and popularize space tourism, widening the possibilities to non-professional astronauts. “Musk, Bezos, and Branson have not only invested billions of their own money into their respective ventures, but they’ve also drawn attention to the potential of space as the next economic frontier” (Parks, 2024).
This novel era of space industry is known as “NewSpace”, contrasted with the “OldSpace” of the Cold War period. OldSpace represents the antiquated and primitive forms of space technology in the 20th century, governed by political tension and social criticism. OldSpace is NASA, the Apollo missions, government-directed, and underfunded. NewSpace is the complete opposite; ambitious, imaginative, commercial, exciting, progressive. NewSpace symbolizes the arrival of capitalism in outer space, an epoch of futurism and modernization. However, according to a Nature article titled “One giant leap for capitalistkind: private enterprise in outer space”, NewSpace is far from the humanistic, inclusive movement it is advertised as. “Despite its humanistic, universalizing pretensions, however, NewSpace does not benefit humankind as such but rather a specific set of wealthy entrepreneurs, many of them originating in Silicon Valley, who strategically deploy humanist tropes to engender enthusiasm for their activities” (Shammas and Holen, 2019). The authors of the article describe this type of entrepreneur as “capitalistkind”, a spin on Neil Armstrong’s famous quote “one giant leap for mankind”. The future of NewSpace envisions an exponential increase in the production of rockets and satellites, the exploitation and mining of planets and asteroids, the exploration and colonization of the Solar System and beyond. However, rather than “mankind”, these efforts will be led by “capitalistkind”—billionaire entrepreneurs who view outer space as a new land to be conquered, “a domain of private enterprise”, accessible only to them. Donald Trump’s presidency further encourages the movement of space privatization, sharing its lucrative prospects and capitalist principles, reserving outer space for those privileged and wealthy enough to reach it. Additionally, after Trump dismantled diversity, equity, and inclusion (DEI) initiatives in his executive orders, NASA closed its Office of Diversity and Equal Opportunity (ODEO), limiting underrepresented groups’ access to STEM fields.
Space for the Few
NewSpace methodically dominates outer space, advertising space tourism and exploration to the public while systematically reserving it for billionaires and entrepreneurs. Simultaneously, Earth’s orbit is becoming further crowded, increasing the risk of satellite collisions and accumulation of space debris. In 2022, the World Economic Forum’s Global Risks Report warned that failing spacecraft could seriously impact life on Earth. According to Shammas and Holen, “the accelerating NewSpace race may actually accelerate catastrophic global climate change, owing to the deleterious (and largely unmeasured) effects of burning liquid rocket fuels in the atmosphere”. Ironically, in this new age of space technology, the most prominent threats are identical to those of OldSpace. During the Cold War, many feared that the Space Race would escalate into a galactic Arms Race; a battle between the United States and the Soviet Union with extinction-level weapons leading to global catastrophe. Although the Cold War has ended, this suspicion has not dissipated, only exacerbated as technology and weaponry production evolves, political disputes proliferate, and humanity travels spaceward.
Ultimately, all space travel—whether government-led or private, OldSpace or NewSpace— possesses a social, political, and environmental gravity. As Gil Scott-Heron argued, there are more than enough dilemmas to solve on Planet Earth, especially those which disproportionately affect people of color; poverty, housing, medical expenses, food deserts, racial discrimination, redlining, and segregation in employment and education. By analyzing the history of politics, NASA, and OldSpace, we glean a well-rounded perspective on the origin of space travel and its initial aim—purely political—which reverberates in the capitalist culture of NewSpace today. Will the pursuit of space exploration ever be more than a motive for profit? A justification for exploitation? Our planet is in a dire crisis, only aggravated by the indifference of major corporations, political figures, and global superpowers. Rather than allocating resources towards sustainable energy sources or supporting conservation efforts, “capitalistkind”—the power-hungry billionaires behind the private space industry—are intent on colonizing outer space. This is not a reality defined by evolution or success, but rather poisoned by materialism and competition. This is a world bound for environmental destruction, and most malignant of all, ignorance.
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